Sunset Shadows

White Mercenaries and the Mughal Decline

In February, I embarked on a journey to Agra, a city I had always associated with the Taj Mahal. However, this time, I was on a different quest. As winter lingered in the air, I ventured away from the crowds that flocked to the city’s more famous monuments, exploring the lesser-known corners of Agra. My destination was the Lal Taj, a remarkable red sandstone mausoleum that stood silent amidst the city’s bustle. Built by Begum Christina Jacob Johan in memory of her husband, Colonel John William Hessing, a Dutch mercenary, the Lal Taj is a striking architectural gem often referred to as the ‘Red Taj Mahal’ due to its resemblance to its more renowned counterpart.

Standing there, I was enveloped by the quiet grandeur of the place, reminded of the intricate tapestry of stories that lie beneath India’s historical landscape. Not far from the Lal Taj, I visited the grave of Walter Reinhardt Sombre, another European adventurer whose life seemed straight out of a historical novel. The serenity of his resting place belied the turbulence of his years as a mercenary in 18th-century India. I couldn’t help but wonder about the kind of man who had carved a legacy amidst such political chaos—someone who formed an unlikely partnership with Begum Samru, a figure who would change the course of history in her own right.

These visits ignited my fascination with the role of white mercenaries during the waning days of the Mughal Empire. I began to comprehend how these outsiders—Germans, Frenchmen, and Dutchmen—entered the crumbling empire, working for Indian rulers, mastering local politics, and forever altering the region’s destiny.

Walter Reinhardt Sombre, perhaps lesser known than his wife, Begum Samru, was among the most infamous European mercenaries to traverse 18th-century India. Alongside contemporaries such as Benoît de Boigne, Pierre Cuillier-Perron, Colonel John William Hessing, Jean-Baptiste Gentil, and René Madec, Sombre played a pivotal role in shaping the tumultuous history of the Indian subcontinent during a period characterized by upheaval and shifting allegiances.

The 18th century witnessed the decline of the Mughal Empire, which had previously dominated the region. As regional kingdoms and princely states vied for supremacy, the ensuing power vacuum attracted European powers like the French and British. In this context, European mercenaries found lucrative opportunities serving Indian rulers seeking to modernize their armies.

Walter Reinhardt Sombre, a German native, arrived in India during the mid-1700s, drawn by the allure of wealth and adventure. He offered his formidable military services to various Indian leaders, particularly Mir Kasim, the Nawab of Bengal. However, his most significant contributions were made in service to the Maratha Empire, particularly under Mahadaji Shinde of the Scindia (or Shinde) dynasty. Sombre’s expertise and leadership in pivotal military campaigns played a crucial role in the Scindias’ expansion and consolidation of their domain in northern India. This earned him considerable respect and a complex reputation among his peers.

Sombre was not the sole European to influence the Scindia army. Benoît de Boigne, a French officer, served as commander-in-chief and was instrumental in modernizing their military structure. He secured several vital victories. Pierre Cuillier-Perron, another French officer, brought expertise in modern warfare, further strengthening the Scindias. Colonel John William Hessing, a Dutch officer, distinguished himself in various military campaigns for the Scindias. Later, he settled in Agra and died there and his wife, Begum Christina Jacob Johan, constructed his tomb modeled after the Taj Mahal.

Sombre’s own life took a defining turn when he formed a partnership with Begum Samru, a Muslim courtesan who later became his wife. Following Sombre’s passing in 1778, Begum Samru demonstrated extraordinary leadership by assuming command of his troops and domains. She converted to Catholicism and became a formidable political force, recognized as one of her era’s most influential women.

The exploits of Sombre and his contemporaries revolve around themes of power, loyalty, and identity. They illustrate how outsiders could secure unprecedented wealth and influence through military prowess and shrewd alliances. The stories of Walter Reinhardt Sombre, Begum Samru, Benoît de Boigne, Pierre Cuillier-Perron, John William Hessing, Jean-Baptiste Gentil, and René Madec showcase the interplay of ambition, cultural exchange, and the intricate dynamics of 18th-century Indian politics. Their legacies continue to captivate, spark debates, and encourage reflection on the profound consequences of this transformative period in Indian history.

Historians continue to debate the roles of European mercenaries in 18th-century India using multiple perspectives that deepen our understanding beyond the simplistic dichotomy of opportunistic adventurers versus agents of modernization. On one hand, it is undeniable that many European mercenaries exploited the political instability and fragmentation of the waning Mughal Empire for personal gain, amassing wealth and influence through shifting loyalties and military prowess. Their actions often contributed to the intensification of local conflicts, as they introduced more lethal European military techniques and technologies to Indian battlefields, which sometimes prolonged warfare and suffering.

Conversely, from another perspective, these mercenaries were key conduits of military modernization in the subcontinent. By incorporating European tactics, discipline, and technologies—such as advanced artillery use, regimented drill, and new forms of fortification—they helped Indian powers like the Marathas adapt to changing warfare paradigms. Leaders like Benoît de Boigne and Pierre Cuillier-Perron significantly reformed armies and contributed not just as soldiers but as strategic advisors, leaving lasting impacts on Indian military structures.

These mercenaries embodied complex identities, often straddling cultural and political divides. Many integrated into Indian society, forming alliances through marriage, conversion, and political partnership, as seen in Walter Reinhardt Sombre’s relationship with Begum Samru. Their presence also highlighted the porous boundaries between local and global forces in an era of early globalization, as these Europeans were neither mere outsiders nor simple colonizers but active participants in local power struggles.

The mercenaries’ influence foreshadowed the broader European imperial interventions that were to come. While initially serving Indian rulers, their presence helped familiarize local powers with European military models, inadvertently preparing the ground for later British colonial supremacy. Regardless of these varied interpretations, the indelible impact of these men on India’s political and military landscape during the empire’s twilight remains a crucial chapter in understanding the subcontinent’s complex transition into the modern era.